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YOGHURT MANUFACTURE TECHNOLOGY

·Å´ó×ÖÌåËõС×ÖÌå·¢²¼ÈÕÆÚ£º2006-08-26 À´Ô´£ºÊ³Æ·À×¾º¼¼¹ÙÍøÔõôÑù ʳƷ°²È«ÎÀÊ¿ Ìṩ
      LECTURE PLAN
      HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
      PRESENT SITUATION
      Production data
      I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON YOGHURTS MANUFACTURE
      II YOGHURTS QUALITY
      III KEY POINTS ABOUT YOGHURTS
      MANUFACTURE PROCESSES
      III.1 - MIXES (CULTURE MEDIUM) PREPARATION
      III.2 - FERMENTATION PROCESS
      III.3 - COOLING ¨C MECHANICAL TREATMENTS
      III.4 - FROM PACKAGING TO COLD STORAGE
      III.5 ¨C CLEANING IN PLACE ¨C PROCESS
      AUTOMATION
      IV CONCLUSIONS


      -T 3
      HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
      _____________________________________________
      ¨¨ APPARITION 8 000 TO 10 000 YEARS AGO (MESOPOTANIA, EGYPT, INDIA, NORTH-EAST OF AFRICA)
      ? LINKED TO ANIMALS DOMESTICATION
      ? A WAY OF MILK PRESERVATION
      ? IMPORTANT BENEFITS FOR HUMAN HEALTH
      AND NUTRITION
      ¨¨ CENTURIES AND CENTURIES OF TRADITIONAL HANDICRAFT MANUFACTURE ¡­ ACCORDING TO P EOPLE'S TRADITIONS AND ENVIRONNE- MENTAL CONDITIONS
      (MORE THAN 400 GENERIC NANES ;
      NOT ONLY BASED ON LACTIC FERMENTATION)
      ¨¨ LARGE SPREADING OVER ALL THE WORLD


      - T 4
      PRESENT SITUATION
      __________________________________________________
      ¨¨ INDUSTRIALISATION OF THE YOGHURT MANUFACTURE IS 30 TO 40 YEARS OLD
      ¨¨ LARGE MULTINATIONAL COMPAGNIES ARE INVOLVED
      ¨¨ A LOT OF YOGHURT TYPES AVAILABLE ACCORDING TO CONSUMERS DEMAND
      ¨¨ WELL ESTABLISHED MANUFACTURING
      PROCESSES?BETTER QUALITY CONTROL
      ?PROCESS PRODUCTIVITY
      IMPROVEMENT
      ¨¨ RESPECT OF THE REGULATIONS ESTABLISHED BY EACH DIFFERENT COUNTRY


      -T 5
      LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
      ______________________________

      LACTOSE
      STARTER CULTURE
      LACTIQUES
      GALACTOSE
      GLUCOSE


      +

      LACTIC ACID
      +
      AROMA
      COMPOUNDS
      +
      TEXTURING
      COMPOUNDS


      ?Symbiotic cultures :Streptococcus
      thermophilusandLactobacillus bulgaricus
      ?Galactose accumulation,
      glucose utilisation
      ?The accumulation of the lactic
      acid leads to an acidification of
      the mix (pH decrease)
      ?Milk coagulation whenpH ~ 5.2
      ?Production of aroma COMPOUNDS (acetaldehyde) and of texturing
      compounds (E.P.S.)


      -T 6
      FRENCH YOGHURT DEFINITION
      __________________________________________________
      ¨¨ THE FRENCH REGULATION FIXED THE CONCENTRATION OF :
      ? LACTIC ACID ? 7.0 g/l
      ? ALIVE THERMOPHILIC LACTIC BACTERIA ? 107b/g
      (onlyLactobacillus delbrueckiisubsp.bulgaricusandStreptococcus thermophilusare allowed)
      ? ADDITIVES ? 30% w/w
      (fruits, sugar, flavouring agents)
      ¨¨ OTHERS INDICATIONS MUST BE GIVEN :
      ? FAT CONTENT
      ? MILK ORIGIN (ANIMAL)
      ? NATURE OF ALL THE ADDITIVES
      ? STORAGE TEMPERATURE
      ? MAXIMUM STORAGE TIME
      ¨¨ EXCEPT FOR SUGAR, ALL "MIXES" COMPONENTS MUST COME FROM MILK


      - T 7
      TYPES OF YOGHURTS AVAILABLE
      ________________________________
      1) TEXTURE
      ? SET TYPE YOGHURTS
      ? STIRRED TYPE YOGHURTS
      ? DRINKING YOGHURTS
      2) FAT CONTENT
      ? LOW FAT
      ? MEDIUM FAT
      ? FULL FAT
      3) FLAVOR
      ? PLAIN (NATURAL) YOGHURTS
      ? FRUIT ADDITION
      ? FLAVOURED YOGHURTS
      4) DIVERSIFICATION IN PRODUCTS AND MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS
      ? VEGETABLE OILS ADDITION
      ? HEAT TREATMENT
      ? VITAMIN FORTIFICATION
      ? ENZYME HYDROLYSIS


      -T 9
      SIMPLIFIED YOGHURT MANUFACTURE
      FLOW-SHEET
      __________________________________________________
      3 MAIN STEPS CAN BE DEFINED :
      1) PREPARATION AND PHYSICAL
      TREATMENTS OF THE MIXES
      2) ? INOCULATION OF THE MIX
      ? LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
      (INCUBATION IN CUPS OR IN TANKS)
      3) COOLING, FILLING, PACKAGING*
      AND COLD STORAGE
      -----------------------------------------------------------------
      *FOR SET YOGHURTS FILLING AND PACKAGING
      ARE DONE BEFORE FERMENTATION.
      THEIR INCUBATION IS DONE IN WARM ROOMS


      T 10
      MAIN YOGHURT QUALITY CRITERIA
      ___________________________________________
      1) ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION
      ? ACIDITY
      CONSUMERS ARE SELECTING "NON ACID" YOGHURTS
      ? TEXTURE
      ? KEY PARAMETRE (PIECES OF FRUIT
      HOMOGENITY INTO THE BULK)
      ?ON SPOON AND IN MOUTH APPRECIATION
      ? FLAVOR
      THE "YOGHURT TASTE" (BASED ON ACETALDEHYDE) IS VERY COMPLEX
      2) OTHERS FACTORS
      ? NO SYNERESIS
      EXUDATION OF WHEY IS BADELY APPRECIATED BY
      THE CONSUMERS
      ? GEL HOMOGENITY
      MICROSTRUCTURE, GRANULARITY
      ? COLOUR


      -T 11
      METHODS FOR
      YOGHURT QUALITY
      DETERMINATION
      ______________________
      ACIDITY
      ?pH
      ?LACTIC ACID CONTENT
      ? MEASUREMENT AS A FUNCTION OF :
      * FERMENTATION TIME,
      * STORAGE TIME (POST-ACIDIFICATION)
      ACIDIFICATION RATE(STARTER + PROCESS
      PROPERTIES)
      ?THE CINAC SYSTEM
      * pH = f (TIME)
      * dpH/dt = f (TIME)
      * KEY DESCRIPTORS :
      - Vm : MAXIMUM ACIDIFICATION RATE
      - Tm : TIME TO OBTAIN Vm
      - pHm : pH CORRESPONDING TO Vm
      - TpHi : TIME TO REACH A CERTAIN pHi


      -T 12
      METHODS FOR
      YOGHURT QUALITY
      DETERMINATION
      _____________________
      ¨¨ A LOT OF MORE OR LESS EMPIRICAL METHODS
      ¡¤ POSTHUMUS FUNNEL
      ¡¤ BROOKFIELD (LARGE INDUSTRIAL UTILISATION)
      ¡¤ BOSTWICK CONSISTOMETER
      ¨¨ TEXTURE(FIRMNESS CARACTERISATION)
      ¡¤ PENETROMETRY
      ¡¤ ROPINESS ASSESSEMENT
      ¨¨ RHELOGICAL BEHAVIOUR
      ¡¤ OSCILLATORY MEASUREMENTS ON A CONE/PLATE INSTRUMENT
      ¡¤ OBTENTION OF THE CHANGE OF COMPLEX VISCOSITY VERSUS STRESS INCREASE


      - T 13
      METHODS FOR
      YOGHURT QUALITY
      DETERMINATION
      _________________________________________
      ANALYSIS OF FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
      ¡¤ GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
      (+ MASS SPECTROMETRY)
      ¡¤ LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
      ¡¤ COLORIMETRIC TESTS
      ¨¨ 4 MAIN CATEGORIES OF COMPOUNDS :
      ¡¤ CARBONYL COMPOUNDS (ACETALDEHYDE, ACETON, ACETO?N, DIACETYL)
      ¡¤ NON-VOLATILE ACIDS (LACTIC, PYRUVIC, OXALIC)
      ¡¤ VOLATILE ACIDS (FORMIC, ACETIC, PROPIONIC)
      ¡¤ SOME AMINO ACIDS
      ¨¨ ACETALDEHYDE IS THE KEY COMPOUND
      (2 TO 75ppm)
      ¡¤ INCREASE IN MIXED CULTURES
      ¡¤ DECREASE DURING STORAGE
      ¡¤ MOST OF THE OTHER COMPOUNDS MUST BE PRESENT


      -T 14
      METHODS FOR
      YOGHURT QUALITY
      DETERMINATION
      SOME OTHER QUALITY CRITERIA
      ¨¨ MICROBIOLOGICAL COMPOSITION
      ¡¤ GOOD AMOUNT OF ALIVE LACTIC BACTERIA
      ¡¤ AVOID CONTAMINANT FLORA
      ¨¨ COLOUR ¨C COLORIMETRY
      ¡¤ WHITE COLOUR (NATURAL YOGHURTS)
      ¡¤ "FRUIT" COLOUR/FLAVOUR COLOUR
      ¨¨ GEL HOMOGENITY
      ¡¤ AVOID BUBLES AND GRANULAR COAGULUM
      ¨¨ SYNERESIS = VOLUME OF WHEY OBTAINED AFTER SOME DAYS
      ¡¤ LIMIT WHEY EXUDATION AND INCREASE WATER-BINDING CAPACITY


      -T 15
      METHODS FOR
      YOGHURT QUALITY
      DETERMINATION
      SENSORY ANALYSIS
      ¡¤ EXPERTS TRAINED PANEL (10-20 PEOPLE)
      ¡¤ CONSUMERS TRAINED PANEL (100 PEOPLE)
      ¨¨ VERY TIME CONSUMING AND EXPANSIVE
      ¨¨ AGREEMENT AND TRAINING ON TEST METHODS AND SPECIFIC TERMINOLOGY (YOGHURT ATTRIBUTES)
      ¨¨ HOW TO SELECT ONLY A FEW NUMBER OF KEY ATTRIBUTES


      - T 16
      CULTURE MEDIUM (MIX) PREPARATION
      ___________________________________________
      1) COMPOSITION OF THE MIXES
      ? GENERAL RULE
      ? UTILISATION OF A MILK BASE
      ? FAT CONTENT STANDARDISATION
      ? PROTEIN ENRICHMENT
      ? MILK AND/OR CASEINE POWDER ADDITION
      ? CONCENTRATION (EVAPORATION, U.F.)
      ? NON-MILK PROTEINS ARE NOT ALLOWED
      IN ALL COUNTRIES
      ? FRUIT/FLAVOURED YOGHURTS
      ? ADDITION OF PIECES OF FRUIT
      ? ADDITION OF SUGAR OR SWEETENING AGENTS
      ? ADDITION OF FLAVOURING AGENTS


      - T 17
      CULTURE MEDIUM (MIX) PREPARATION
      ___________________________________________
      ? OTHER YOGHURTS
      ? ADDITION OF OTHERS ADDITIVES (WITH POSSIBLE
      RESTRICTIONS COUNTRY BY COUNTRY)
      ? STABILIZERS/EMULSIFIERS (POLYSACCHARIDES)
      ? VITAMINS (A, C ¡­.)
      ? VEGETAL FAT, FATTY ACIDS
      ? PRESERVATIVES (SORBIC AND BENZOIC ACIDS,
      SULFUR DIOXYDE)
      ? MINERAL CONTENT MODIFICATION (Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca+)
      ? FOOD COLOURANTS (10 - 15 COLOURANTS)


      -T 18
      CULTURE MEDIUM (MIX) PREPARATION
      ___________________________________________
      2) PHYSICAL TREATMENTS OF THE MIXES
      2.1 ¨CHOMOGENISATION
      ? TO OBTAIN A FAT-IN-WATER EMULSION
      (NO FAT LAYER AT THE TOP OF THE YOGHURT)

      CONDITIONS
      CONSEQUENCES ON YOGHURT
      VISCOSITY
      ARE IMPROVED
      150 - 200 bars
      SYNERESIS
      60 - 70 ¡ãC
      WHITE COLOUR
      MICRO STRUCTURE


      T 19
      CULTURE MEDIUM (MIX) PREPARATION
      ___________________________________________
      2.2 ¨CHEAT TREATMENT
      ? "HIGH PASTEURISATION" (95¡ãC ¨C some minutes)
      ? "LOW PASTEURISATION" (80¡ãC < ) AND UHT TREATMENT ARE LESS EFFICIENT
      ? EFFECTS : ? DESTRUCTION OF MICROORGANISMS
      ? WHEY PROTEINS DENATURATION
      ? INCREASE GEL CONSISTENCY AND
      STABILITY
      ? THE FERMENTATION TEMPERATURE (40-45¡ãC) IS FIXED AT THE OUTSIDE OF THE HEAT EXCHANGER


      T 19b
      EFFECT OF HOMOGENISATION AND HEAT TREATMENT ON THE CONSISTENCY/VISCOSITY OF YOGHURT
      Heat treatment of milk for 30 min at

      Measurement of consistency/visco
      sity of yoghurt
      70¡ãC
      78¡ãC
      86¡ãC
      95¡ãC
      H
      NH
      H
      NH
      H
      NH
      H
      NH
      Falling sphere a (depth, cm)
      Posthumus FUNNEL b
      (time, s)
      3.0
      > 15.0
      1.5
      10.5
      1.2
      6.0
      1.2
      2.7
      9.0
      5.0
      14.0
      7.5
      17.0
      8.5
      18.7
      9.0

      a)Falling sphere : the deeper the sphere sinks into
      the yoghurt, the thinner is the product.
      b)Posthumus funnel : the longer the time required for
      the yoghurt to pass through the funnel, the more viscous is the product.
      h : HOMOGENISED MILD ¨C NH : NON-HOMOGENISED MILK
      (F romTAMIME, 1999)


      - T 21
      FERMENTATION PROCESS
      _______________________
      3)MIXED CULTURES PROPERTIES

      ¡¤ IMMEDIATE ACIDIFICATION
      ¡¤ IMPORTANT AND FAST BACTERIA GROWTH
      ¡¤ RAPID AND LONG-TIME ACIDIFICATION
      CONTROL OF FERMENTATION LENGTH
      ¡¤ SMALL (OR NONE) POST ACIDIFICATION (COOLING, PACKAGING, STORAGE)
      ¡¤ SUITABLE TEXTURE AND VISCOSITY
      ¡¤ GEL RESISTANCE TO MECHANICAL DESTRUCTURATION
      ¡¤ APPROPRIATE FLAVOUR
      CONTROL YOGHURT QUALITY


      -T 22
      FERMENTATION PROCESS
      _______________________
      B -FERMENTATION IMPROVEMENT
      ¨¨ MODIFICATION OF THE STRAINS INVOLVED IN THE STARTER
      ¡¤ INTRODUCTION OF NEW STRAINS WITH KNOWN PROPERTIES
      ¡¤ OTHER RATIO OF THE SAME STRAINS
      ¨¨ MODIFICATION OF THE STARTER PRESENTATION AND/OR INOCULATION AMOUNT
      ¨¨ OPTIMISATION OF THE YOGHURT MANUFACTURE CONDITIONS


      -T 23
      FERMENTATION PROCESS
      _______________________
      PROCESS MONITORING
      ¨¨ TEMPERATURE CONTROL IS QUITE IMPOSSIBLE :
      ¡¤ FIXED BY THE OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE OF HEAT TREATMENT
      ¡¤ A VERY "HEAT SENSIBLE" PROCESS
      ¨¨ pH AND ACIDIFICATION RATE ARE KEY PARAMETERS
      ¡¤ pH ON-line MEASUREMENT IS NOT AVAILABLE
      ¡¤ THE CONCEPT OF ACIDIFICATION RATE IS NOT YET POPULAR
      ¨¨ FERMENTATION END-TIME INITIATE THE COOLING STEP
      ¡¤ STRONG EFFECT ON YOGHURTS QUALITY
      ¡¤ DEFINED FROM pH MEASUREMENTS AFTER SAMPLING


      -T 24
      FERMENTATION PROCESS
      FUTURE INNOVATIONS IN PROCESS MONITORING
      1) INDIRECT pH MEASUREMENT
      ¡¤ pH CLASS PROBES ARE NOT ALLOWED
      ¡¤ ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY METHOD
      ¡¤ THERMAL METHOD
      2) PREDICTION OF FERMENTATION
      END-TIME
      ¡¤ PREDICTION OF pH DECREASE VERSUS FERMENTATION TIME
      3) OPTIMISATION OF YOGHURT QUALITY
      SEE CONCLUSION


      T 25
      COOLING
      _____________________________
      ¨¨ TWO TYPES OF PROCESSES FOR :
      ? SET YOGHURT
      ? STIRRED YOGHURT
      ¨¨ SET YOGHURT
      ? SMALL UNITS : WATER BATH OR CABINETS
      ? LARGE UNITS : ROOMS INCUBATION TEMPERATURE,
      AND TUNNELS (WARM AND CHILLED)
      ¡¤ AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL, AIR CIRCULATING
      CONDITIONS, AND COOLING CAPACITY ARE IMPORTANT
      ¨¨ STIRRED YOGHURT
      ? AGITATION IN TANK AND CONTINOUS COOLING
      (HEAT EXCHANGERS)
      ¡¤ RAPID COOLING

      IMPORTANT SHEAR STRESS
      (MIXER, PIPES, PUMPS, EXCHANGER¡­)
      COAGULUM
      DESTRUCTURATION (LOSS OF VISCOSITY)



      - T 26
      PACKAGING
      ______________________________
      1) MAIN FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING :
      ? PROVIDE PROTECTION
      ? BRING A MESSAGE TO THE BUYER
      ? FACILITATE THE HANDLING
      2) TWO STAGES FOR PACKAGING :
      ? SET YOGHURT : BEFORE FERMENTATION
      (LOW VISCOSITY)
      ? STIRRED YOGHURT : AFTER FERMENTA-
      TION AND PRECOOLING (HIGH VISCOSITY)


      -T 27
      PACKAGING
      ___________________________
      3) TWO KINDS OF PACKAGING EQUIPMENT :
      ? FILL ¨C SEAL TECHNIQUE (FS)
      ? FORM ¨C FILL ¨C SEAL TECHNIQUE (FFS)
      4) PACKAGING EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS:
      ? MECHANICALLY SOPHISTICATED
      ? FULLY AUTOMATION
      ? CLEAN, ULTRACLEAN OR ASEPTIC
      MACHINES
      ? VERSATILY (FLAVOR, SIZE, PRODUCT
      PRESENTATION)
      ? IMPORTANT INVESTMENT


      - T 28
      OVER PACKAGING ¨C PALLETISATION ¨C
      COOLING ¨C STORAGE
      _____________________________________
      ¨¨ OPERATIONS FULLY AUTOMATED IN LARGE PLANTS
      ¨¨ FIVE STEPS :
      ¡¤ PLACEMENT OF YOGHURT CUPS IN CARDBOARD TRAYS
      ¡¤ PALLETISATION OF THE TRAYS
      ¡¤ COOLING OF THE PALLETISED YOGHURTS (CHILLED TUNNEL)
      ¡¤ PLASTIC OVERWRAPPING OF THE COOLED PALLETISED YOGHURTS
      ¡¤ COLD STORAGE (4¡ãC) BEFORE DISTRIBUTION AND RETAILING
      ¨¨ THE LOW TEMPERATURE CHAIN MUST BY RESPECTED TO OBTAIN HIGH QUALITY AND SAVE YOGHURTS


      -T 29
      CLEANING ¨C IN ¨C PLACE (C.I.P.)
      ¨¨ GENERALISED PROCEDURE : MANUAL WASHING HAS DISAPPEARED
      ¨¨ PLANTS AND MACHINES ARE DESIGNED TO ALLOW C.I.P.
      ¨¨ MAIN AGENTS/ACTIONS
      ¡¤ HEAT TREATMENT (STEAM)
      ¡¤ CHEMICAL AGENTS (DETERGENTS, SURFACE ACTIVE, STERILISING¡­)
      ¡¤ MECHANICAL ACTION (PRESSURE, FLOW RATE)
      ¡¤ WATER (ONLY FOR RINCING).


      -T 30
      PROCESS AUTOMATION
      ¨¨ INDUSTRIAL PLANTS ARE LARGELY AUTOMATED
      ¡¤ CONTROL LOOPS (TEMPERATURE, FLOW RATE, WEIGHT¡­)
      ¡¤ SEQUENTIAL MONITORING (INCLUDING C.I.P.)
      ¡¤ PROCESS SUPERVISION WITH KEY DATA
      ¨¨ OPTIMAL QUALITY CONTROL DOES NOT EXIST : SOME STRATEGIC DECISIONS ARE ON THE OPERATOR RESPONSABILITY

      BENEFITS
      DRAWBACKS
      ? SECURITY
      ? PRODUCT TRACEABILITY
      ? LABOR COST REDUCTION
      ? CENTRALISED
      INFORMATION
      ? EXPENSIVE
      ? SPECIFICITY
      ? POOR FLEXIBILITY


      -T 31
      CONCLUSION
      MANUFACTURING A HIGH QUALITY YOGHURT IS EASY
      YOU REQUIRE FOLLOWING TAMIME AND ROBINSON ADVICE (1999)
      ¡¤ MILK OF GOOD QUALITY AND ADEQUATE FORTIFICATION
      ¡¤ CORRECT HEAT TREATMENT,
      ¡¤ AN ACTIVE, WELL-BALANCED AND CONTAMINANT-FREE STARTER CULTURE,
      ¡¤ A CLEAN AND WELL-MAINTAINED PLANT,
      ¡¤ CORRECT INOCULATION RATE
      ¡¤ CORRECT INCUBATION TIMES AND TEMPERATURES,
      ¡¤ AVOIDANCE OF ROUGH HANDLING OF SET YOGHURTS,
      ¡¤ THE USE OF HIGH QUALITY FRUIT OR OTHER INGREDIENTS
      ¡¤ CORRECT STORAGE OF RETAIL PRODUCT BELOW 5¡ãC
      A PERTINENT GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE


      - T 32
      CONCLUSION
      ¨¨ THE OPTIMISATION OF YOGHURT QUALITY STAYS AN INDUSTRIAL CHALLENGE
      ¨¨ IT NEEDS AN INTEGRATED APPROACH OF THE PROCESS, FROM CULTURES SELECTION AND MIXES PREPARATION TO COOLING AND MECHANICAL OPERATIONS
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